SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers

SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers

internet services with built-in security features in Perth

Overview of SUPA Networks


Okay, so like, SUPA Networks... IT services in sydney . these things are kinda important when ya talkin infrastructure providers. Basically, an overview (a real quick look-see, ya know?), shows that SUPA networks aint just some random cables. They are, in essence, the backbone for, well, everything!


Think of it this way: all them providers, big and small, need a way to, uh, get their data from point A to point B. SUPA networks, they provide that way. Theyre the highways, the roads, the maybe even the secret tunnels, of the internet world. Not just that, they facilitate all kinds of communication!


But its not always simple. There are, like, different kinds of SUPA networks, different technologies used, different ways theyre managed. Its a whole ecosystem, really. And understanding that ecosystem, even at a high level, is crucial if youre, say, trying to build a new service, or improve an existing one. Gosh!


You cant just ignore em, ya know? If your infrastructure isnt properly connected, its like trying to run a marathon with no shoes on. Aint gonna happen! So, yup, SUPA networks: important stuff for infrastructure providers!

Key Infrastructure Components


When we talk about Key Infrastructure Components for SUPA Networks, there's a lot to unpack! First off, SUPA stands for Scalable Universal Public Access, which is a term that might sound a bit fancy, but it actually refers to the foundational elements that help establish robust and efficient network services. You might think that these components are just some technical jargon, but they play a crucial role in ensuring connectivity and reliability.


One of the most essential components is the core network infrastructure. This includes routers, switches, and servers that manage data traffic. Without these, you wouldnt be able to connect to the internet or access various services. Can you imagine a world where you cant stream your favorite shows or video call your friends? Nope, not a fun thought!


Moreover, theres also the importance of physical infrastructure, like data centers and telecommunications towers. These setups are the backbone of SUPA Networks, ensuring that signals are transmitted effectively over long distances. Its not just about having the equipment; it's also about where its located. If the towers arent positioned strategically, you might experience poor connectivity, and nobody wants that!


Then, we have the software components which are often overlooked but are incredibly vital. Network management software helps in monitoring and optimizing performance. If you dont have the right tools to troubleshoot issues, things can go downhill fast. It's not just about having the hardware; the software needs to work seamlessly with it to provide a smooth user experience.


Lastly, let's not forget about security. In todays digital age, protecting user data is paramount. Infrastructure providers must implement strong security measures to safeguard against cyber threats. If they don't, it could lead to devastating consequences for users and providers alike. So, without a doubt, every key infrastructure component plays a unique and important role in the overall success of SUPA Networks.


In conclusion, understanding these key components is essential for anyone interested in network infrastructure. They might seem like a bunch of technical details, but they're the very things that keep our digital world running smoothly.

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So, the next time youre enjoying your internet connection, think about all those behind-the-scenes elements making it possible!

Challenges Faced by SUPA Network Providers


The challenges faced by SUPA network providers are quite numerous and can sometimes feel overwhelming! First off, one of the biggest issues is the ever-evolving technology landscape. It's not like they can just sit back and relax; new advancements pop up all the time. This means providers have to constantly adapt and update their infrastructure, which can be both time-consuming and costly.


Moreover, the competition in the market isn't something to overlook. With so many players trying to grab a share, its tough for any one provider to stand out. They've gotta find ways to offer better services without breaking the bank, and that's easier said than done. Not to mention, the increasing demand for faster and more reliable connectivity means they cant afford to slack off.


Then there's the issue of regulatory hurdles. It seems like every region has its own set of rules that providers must follow. These regulations can change without any warning, making it hard for network providers to keep up. They definitely don't want to run into legal issues, so staying compliant is a huge responsibility.


Additionally, customer expectations are sky-high nowadays. People want seamless connectivity, and if theres even a slight hiccup, complaints pour in. Its like theyre always under scrutiny! And lets not forget the costs associated with maintaining and upgrading infrastructure. Providers often struggle to balance their budgets while investing in the latest technology.


In conclusion, SUPA network providers face numerous challenges that can hinder their growth and success. From keeping up with tech advancements to navigating regulations, it's a tough road ahead. They've gotta be innovative and strategic to overcome these obstacles, and it's certainly no easy feat!

Technological Innovations in SUPA Infrastructure


Technological innovations in SUPA infrastructure have really taken off, transforming how SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers operate! These advancements arent just about upgrading existing systems but are all about creating something entirely new and more efficient. For instance, cloud computing isnt just a buzzword anymore – its being integrated into everything, from data storage to network management. Its amazing how providers are no longer tied to physical servers scattered across different locations. Instead, they can leverage the power of the cloud to scale resources up or down as needed, which is a game changer!


Another area where innovation is making waves is in the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning. These technologies are not only improving network performance but also enhancing security measures. AI can predict and prevent potential issues before they become major outages, while machine learning algorithms can spot unusual activities that might indicate a cyber threat. Its incredible to see how these once futuristic concepts are becoming a reality in the day-to-day operations of SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers.


But its not all smooth sailing. There are challenges, of course. Ensuring data privacy and security is more critical than ever, especially with the increasing reliance on cloud technologies. And not all providers are at the same level when it comes to adopting these new innovations. Some are moving faster than others, which can create a competitive landscape where its hard for smaller players to keep up. Still, the benefits of embracing technological innovations far outweigh the drawbacks. Providers who are willing to invest in these new technologies arent just staying ahead of the curve; theyre defining it!


In the end, its not about the tools themselves but how they are used. Technological innovations in SUPA infrastructure are just that – tools. Its the people behind them who are driving change and making sure that these innovations are not just implemented but are also integrated in a way that benefits the end-user. And lets face it, thats the whole point – to provide reliable, high-speed internet access to everyone, no matter where they are. So heres to the future of SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers and the amazing innovations that lie ahead!

Regulatory Landscape and Compliance


Okay, so like, SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers, right? Navigating the regulatory landscape and, ugh, compliance is, well, it aint a walk in the park, is it? Its more like a jungle gym of rules and regulations, swinging from one government agency to another. (Think Ofcom, maybe some local councils too!)


Its not just about throwing up a few towers and calling it a day. Oh no! Youve gotta consider permits, environmental impacts (imagine the paperwork!), and a whole heap of other stuff I wont bore you with. These rules, theyre there to, I guess, ensure fair play, protect consumers, and make sure everythings done, more or less, safely.


And compliance? Thats where the real headaches begin. Its not enough to know the rules, you gotta prove youre following em. This involves audits, reports, and probably a lot of late nights staring at spreadsheets. Darn! Its definitely not something you can just ignore, or hope will go away. Non-compliance can lead to huge fines, business disruption, and nobody wants that, do they?


Essentially, this whole area is crucial. Ignoring it isnt a smart move.

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Its the foundation for sustainable and responsible infrastructure development, believe it or not!

Future Trends and Opportunities


Well, when it comes to Future Trends and Opportunities for SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers, its quite a dynamic landscape theyre stepping into! Sure, theyve got a lot on their plate, but hey, thats what makes it exciting, right?


First off, lets talk about the cloud, because who doesnt love the cloud? Its not just about storing data anymore; its about creating a flexible infrastructure that can scale up or down depending on demand. Thats a game changer!

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But heres the thing, they cant just jump into it blindly. They need to think about security and compliance, which are like the twin pillars of the cloud world.

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Neglect one, and youre in for a world of trouble.


Now, lets not forget about 5G.

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Its like the next big thing, you know? But its not without its challenges. Building out that infrastructure is no small feat, especially in rural areas. And then theres the whole spectrum licensing thing – its a bit of a minefield! Still, the rewards are immense. Imagine the speed, the latency, and the potential for IoT applications! Its mind-blowing.


But wait, theres more! Edge computing is another buzzword thats been doing the rounds. Its all about bringing the data closer to the source, which can drastically reduce latency. Thats huge for real-time applications like autonomous vehicles and smart cities. The trick is, though, to integrate it seamlessly with existing networks without causing too much of a headache.


Oh, and dont forget about sustainability. With all the data centers and networks, power consumption is a big issue. So, finding ways to make their operations more energy-efficient is not just good for the environment; its also good for the bottom line.


Lastly, theres the whole customer experience thing. In todays world, customers expect nothing but the best. So, its not enough to just provide a reliable service; they need to make sure its easy to use and understand. And that means investing in user-friendly interfaces and customer support.


In short, the future is full of opportunities for SUPA Networks Infrastructure Providers, but its not going to be easy. Theyve got to navigate through a sea of challenges while keeping an eye on the horizon for the next big thing. But hey, thats what makes it worth it, right? Heres to the future!

Case Studies of Successful SUPA Network Implementations


Okay, so, like, diving into SUPA networks-you know, those super-duper ultra-fast broadband setups-its kinda fascinating when you look at how different infrastructure providers have actually pulled it off. It aint always sunshine and rainbows, lemme tell ya.


Consider, for instance, Provider As rollout in, say, a densely populated urban area. They went all in on fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), but, uh, didnt quite factor in the sheer amount of existing underground infrastructure. Digging everywhere, you know? (What a mess!) The case study shows they had to renegotiate contracts with local councils, causing delays and, well, cost overruns. Not a pretty picture, Im afraid. However, the end result? Blazing fast speeds and happy customers... eventually!


Then youve got Provider B, who took a different approach in a more rural setting. They combined fixed wireless access (FWA) with some strategic fiber deployments. Now, this wasnt without its challenges. Weather conditions, you see, can really mess with FWA signals, and they didnt initially have enough redundancy built into their network. So, yeah, outages happened! But, they learned, adapted, and the implemented backup systems that really helped!


What about Provider C? They focused on a campus environment, a university to be precise. Their success stemmed, in part, from partnering directly with the universitys IT department from the get-go. This helped avoid a lot of compatibility issues and, crucially, ensured the network catered to the specific needs of the students and faculty. It was a win-win, I tell you!


So, you see, theres no one-size-fits-all solution here. Success hinges on understanding the unique context, anticipating potential pitfalls, and, perhaps most importantly, not being afraid to adapt along the way. Yikes! It is not easy!

Citations and other links

Internet protocol suite
Application layer
Transport layer
Internet layer
Link layer
 
Internet history timeline

Early research and development:

Merging the networks and creating the Internet:

Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:

Examples of Internet services:

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the network layer communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the Internet.

IP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. For this purpose, IP defines packet structures that encapsulate the data to be delivered. It also defines addressing methods that are used to label the datagram with source and destination information. IP was the connectionless datagram service in the original Transmission Control Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974, which was complemented by a connection-oriented service that became the basis for the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The Internet protocol suite is therefore often referred to as TCP/IP.

The first major version of IP, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is the dominant protocol of the Internet. Its successor is Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), which has been in increasing deployment on the public Internet since around 2006.[1]

Function

[edit]
Encapsulation of application data carried by UDP to a link protocol frame

The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing host interfaces, encapsulating data into datagrams (including fragmentation and reassembly) and routing datagrams from a source host interface to a destination host interface across one or more IP networks.[2] For these purposes, the Internet Protocol defines the format of packets and provides an addressing system.

Each datagram has two components: a header and a payload. The IP header includes a source IP address, a destination IP address, and other metadata needed to route and deliver the datagram. The payload is the data that is transported. This method of nesting the data payload in a packet with a header is called encapsulation.

IP addressing entails the assignment of IP addresses and associated parameters to host interfaces. The address space is divided into subnets, involving the designation of network prefixes. IP routing is performed by all hosts, as well as routers, whose main function is to transport packets across network boundaries. Routers communicate with one another via specially designed routing protocols, either interior gateway protocols or exterior gateway protocols, as needed for the topology of the network.[3]

Addressing methods

[edit]
Routing schemes
Unicast

Broadcast

Multicast

Anycast

There are four principal addressing methods in the Internet Protocol:

  • Unicast delivers a message to a single specific node using a one-to-one association between a sender and destination: each destination address uniquely identifies a single receiver endpoint.
  • Broadcast delivers a message to all nodes in the network using a one-to-all association; a single datagram (or packet) from one sender is routed to all of the possibly multiple endpoints associated with the broadcast address. The network automatically replicates datagrams as needed to reach all the recipients within the scope of the broadcast, which is generally an entire network subnet.
  • Multicast delivers a message to a group of nodes that have expressed interest in receiving the message using a one-to-many-of-many or many-to-many-of-many association; datagrams are routed simultaneously in a single transmission to many recipients. Multicast differs from broadcast in that the destination address designates a subset, not necessarily all, of the accessible nodes.
  • Anycast delivers a message to any one out of a group of nodes, typically the one nearest to the source using a one-to-one-of-many[4] association where datagrams are routed to any single member of a group of potential receivers that are all identified by the same destination address. The routing algorithm selects the single receiver from the group based on which is the nearest according to some distance or cost measure.

Version history

[edit]
A timeline for the development of the transmission control Protocol TCP and Internet Protocol IP
First Internet demonstration, linking the ARPANET, PRNET, and SATNET on November 22, 1977

In May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published a paper entitled "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication".[5] The paper's authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet switching among network nodes. A central control component of this model was the Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts. The monolithic Transmission Control Program was later divided into a modular architecture consisting of the Transmission Control Protocol and User Datagram Protocol at the transport layer and the Internet Protocol at the internet layer. The model became known as the Department of Defense (DoD) Internet Model and Internet protocol suite, and informally as TCP/IP.

The following Internet Experiment Note (IEN) documents describe the evolution of the Internet Protocol into the modern version of IPv4:[6]

  • IEN 2 Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP (August 1977) describes the need to separate the TCP and Internet Protocol functionalities (which were previously combined). It proposes the first version of the IP header, using 0 for the version field.
  • IEN 26 A Proposed New Internet Header Format (February 1978) describes a version of the IP header that uses a 1-bit version field.
  • IEN 28 Draft Internetwork Protocol Description Version 2 (February 1978) describes IPv2.
  • IEN 41 Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4 (June 1978) describes the first protocol to be called IPv4. The IP header is different from the modern IPv4 header.
  • IEN 44 Latest Header Formats (June 1978) describes another version of IPv4, also with a header different from the modern IPv4 header.
  • IEN 54 Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4 (September 1978) is the first description of IPv4 using the header that would become standardized in 1980 as RFC 760.
  • IEN 80
  • IEN 111
  • IEN 123
  • IEN 128/RFC 760 (1980)

IP versions 1 to 3 were experimental versions, designed between 1973 and 1978.[7] Versions 2 and 3 supported variable-length addresses ranging between 1 and 16 octets (between 8 and 128 bits).[8] An early draft of version 4 supported variable-length addresses of up to 256 octets (up to 2048 bits)[9] but this was later abandoned in favor of a fixed-size 32-bit address in the final version of IPv4. This remains the dominant internetworking protocol in use in the Internet Layer; the number 4 identifies the protocol version, carried in every IP datagram. IPv4 is defined in

RFC 791 (1981).

Version number 5 was used by the Internet Stream Protocol, an experimental streaming protocol that was not adopted.[7]

The successor to IPv4 is IPv6. IPv6 was a result of several years of experimentation and dialog during which various protocol models were proposed, such as TP/IX (

RFC 1475), PIP (

RFC 1621) and TUBA (TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses,

RFC 1347). Its most prominent difference from version 4 is the size of the addresses. While IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing, yielding c. 4.3 billion (4.3×109) addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses providing c. 3.4×1038 addresses. Although adoption of IPv6 has been slow, as of January 2023, most countries in the world show significant adoption of IPv6,[10] with over 41% of Google's traffic being carried over IPv6 connections.[11]

The assignment of the new protocol as IPv6 was uncertain until due diligence assured that IPv6 had not been used previously.[12] Other Internet Layer protocols have been assigned version numbers,[13] such as 7 (IP/TX), 8 and 9 (historic). Notably, on April 1, 1994, the IETF published an April Fools' Day RfC about IPv9.[14] IPv9 was also used in an alternate proposed address space expansion called TUBA.[15] A 2004 Chinese proposal for an IPv9 protocol appears to be unrelated to all of these, and is not endorsed by the IETF.

IP version numbers

[edit]

As the version number is carried in a 4-bit field, only numbers 0–15 can be assigned.

IP version Description Year Status
0 Internet Protocol, pre-v4 N/A Reserved[16]
1 Experimental version 1973 Obsolete
2 Experimental version 1977 Obsolete
3 Experimental version 1978 Obsolete
4 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)[17] 1981 Active
5 Internet Stream Protocol (ST) 1979 Obsolete; superseded by ST-II or ST2
Internet Stream Protocol (ST-II or ST2)[18] 1987 Obsolete; superseded by ST2+
Internet Stream Protocol (ST2+) 1995 Obsolete
6 Simple Internet Protocol (SIP) N/A Obsolete; merged into IPv6 in 1995[16]
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)[19] 1995 Active
7 TP/IX The Next Internet (IPv7)[20] 1993 Obsolete[21]
8 P Internet Protocol (PIP)[22] 1994 Obsolete; merged into SIP in 1993
9 TCP and UDP over Bigger Addresses (TUBA) 1992 Obsolete[23]
IPv9 1994 April Fools' Day joke[24]
Chinese IPv9 2004 Abandoned
10–14 N/A N/A Unassigned
15 Version field sentinel value N/A Reserved

Reliability

[edit]

The design of the Internet protocol suite adheres to the end-to-end principle, a concept adapted from the CYCLADES project. Under the end-to-end principle, the network infrastructure is considered inherently unreliable at any single network element or transmission medium and is dynamic in terms of the availability of links and nodes. No central monitoring or performance measurement facility exists that tracks or maintains the state of the network. For the benefit of reducing network complexity, the intelligence in the network is located in the end nodes.

As a consequence of this design, the Internet Protocol only provides best-effort delivery and its service is characterized as unreliable. In network architectural parlance, it is a connectionless protocol, in contrast to connection-oriented communication. Various fault conditions may occur, such as data corruption, packet loss and duplication. Because routing is dynamic, meaning every packet is treated independently, and because the network maintains no state based on the path of prior packets, different packets may be routed to the same destination via different paths, resulting in out-of-order delivery to the receiver.

All fault conditions in the network must be detected and compensated by the participating end nodes. The upper layer protocols of the Internet protocol suite are responsible for resolving reliability issues. For example, a host may buffer network data to ensure correct ordering before the data is delivered to an application.

IPv4 provides safeguards to ensure that the header of an IP packet is error-free. A routing node discards packets that fail a header checksum test. Although the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides notification of errors, a routing node is not required to notify either end node of errors. IPv6, by contrast, operates without header checksums, since current link layer technology is assumed to provide sufficient error detection.[25][26]

[edit]

The dynamic nature of the Internet and the diversity of its components provide no guarantee that any particular path is actually capable of, or suitable for, performing the data transmission requested. One of the technical constraints is the size of data packets possible on a given link. Facilities exist to examine the maximum transmission unit (MTU) size of the local link and Path MTU Discovery can be used for the entire intended path to the destination.[27]

The IPv4 internetworking layer automatically fragments a datagram into smaller units for transmission when the link MTU is exceeded. IP provides re-ordering of fragments received out of order.[28] An IPv6 network does not perform fragmentation in network elements, but requires end hosts and higher-layer protocols to avoid exceeding the path MTU.[29]

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example of a protocol that adjusts its segment size to be smaller than the MTU. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and ICMP disregard MTU size, thereby forcing IP to fragment oversized datagrams.[30]

Security

[edit]

During the design phase of the ARPANET and the early Internet, the security aspects and needs of a public, international network were not adequately anticipated. Consequently, many Internet protocols exhibited vulnerabilities highlighted by network attacks and later security assessments. In 2008, a thorough security assessment and proposed mitigation of problems was published.[31] The IETF has been pursuing further studies.[32]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ The Economics of Transition to Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) (Report). OECD Digital Economy Papers. OECD. 2014-11-06. doi:10.1787/5jxt46d07bhc-en. Archived from the original on 2021-03-07. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
  2. ^ Charles M. Kozierok, The TCP/IP Guide, archived from the original on 2019-06-20, retrieved 2017-07-22
  3. ^ "IP Technologies and Migration — EITC". www.eitc.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-05. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
  4. ^ GoÅ›cieÅ„, Róża; Walkowiak, Krzysztof; Klinkowski, MirosÅ‚aw (2015-03-14). "Tabu search algorithm for routing, modulation and spectrum allocation in elastic optical network with anycast and unicast traffic". Computer Networks. 79: 148–165. doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2014.12.004. ISSN 1389-1286.
  5. ^ Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. ISSN 1558-0857. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-06. Retrieved 2020-04-06. The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
  6. ^ "Internet Experiment Note Index". www.rfc-editor.org. Retrieved 2024-01-21.
  7. ^ a b Stephen Coty (2011-02-11). "Where is IPv1, 2, 3, and 5?". Archived from the original on 2020-08-02. Retrieved 2020-03-25.
  8. ^ Postel, Jonathan B. (February 1978). "Draft Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 2" (PDF). RFC Editor. IEN 28. Retrieved 6 October 2022. Archived 16 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ Postel, Jonathan B. (June 1978). "Internetwork Protocol Specification Version 4" (PDF). RFC Editor. IEN 41. Retrieved 11 February 2024. Archived 16 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Strowes, Stephen (4 Jun 2021). "IPv6 Adoption in 2021". RIPE Labs. Archived from the original on 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
  11. ^ "IPv6". Google. Archived from the original on 2020-07-14. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
  12. ^ Mulligan, Geoff. "It was almost IPv7". O'Reilly. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
  13. ^ "IP Version Numbers". Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. Archived from the original on 2019-01-18. Retrieved 2019-07-25.
  14. ^ RFC 1606: A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9. April 1, 1994.
  15. ^ Ross Callon (June 1992). TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses (TUBA), A Simple Proposal for Internet Addressing and Routing. doi:10.17487/RFC1347. RFC 1347.
  16. ^ a b Jeff Doyle; Jennifer Carroll (2006). Routing TCP/IP. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Cisco Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-58705-202-6.
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference rfc791 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ L. Delgrossi; L. Berger, eds. (August 1995). Internet Stream Protocol Version 2 (ST2) Protocol Specification - Version ST2+. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1819. RFC 1819. Historic. Obsoletes RFC 1190 and IEN 119.
  19. ^ Cite error: The named reference rfc8200 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ R. Ullmann (June 1993). TP/IX: The Next Internet. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1475. RFC 1475. Historic. Obsoleted by RFC 6814.
  21. ^ C. Pignataro; F. Gont (November 2012). Formally Deprecating Some IPv4 Options. Internet Engineering Task Force. doi:10.17487/RFC6814. ISSN 2070-1721. RFC 6814. Proposed Standard. Obsoletes RFC 1385, 1393, 1475 and 1770.
  22. ^ P. Francis (May 1994). Pip Near-term Architecture. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1621. RFC 1621. Historical.
  23. ^ Ross Callon (June 1992). TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses (TUBA), A Simple Proposal for Internet Addressing and Routing. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1347. RFC 1347. Historic.
  24. ^ J. Onions (1 April 1994). A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1606. RFC 1606. Informational. This is an April Fools' Day Request for Comments.
  25. ^ RFC 1726 section 6.2
  26. ^ RFC 2460
  27. ^ Rishabh, Anand (2012). Wireless Communication. S. Chand Publishing. ISBN 978-81-219-4055-9. Archived from the original on 2024-06-12. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
  28. ^ Siyan, Karanjit. Inside TCP/IP, New Riders Publishing, 1997. ISBN 1-56205-714-6
  29. ^ Bill Cerveny (2011-07-25). "IPv6 Fragmentation". Arbor Networks. Archived from the original on 2016-09-16. Retrieved 2016-09-10.
  30. ^ Parker, Don (2 November 2010). "Basic Journey of a Packet". Symantec. Symantec. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
  31. ^ Fernando Gont (July 2008), Security Assessment of the Internet Protocol (PDF), CPNI, archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-11
  32. ^ F. Gont (July 2011). Security Assessment of the Internet Protocol version 4. doi:10.17487/RFC6274. RFC 6274.
[edit]
Look up internet protocol in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
 

 

"IT" redirects here. For the customer service colloquially referred to as "IT", see Tech support. For other uses, see It (disambiguation). "Infotech" redirects here; not to be confused with Infotech Enterprises. For the political group, see Information Technology (constituency).

 

Information science
General aspects
Related fields and subfields
 
A computer lab contains a wide range of information technology elements, including hardware, software and storage systems.

Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields within information and communications technology (ICT), that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data and information processing, and storage. Information technology is an application of computer science and computer engineering.

The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.[1][a]

An information technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system, or, more specifically speaking, a computer system — including all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment — operated by a limited group of IT users, and an IT project usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an IT system.[3] IT systems play a vital role in facilitating efficient data management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes across various industries. Successful IT projects require meticulous planning and ongoing maintenance to ensure optimal functionality and alignment with organizational objectives.[4]

Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, analysing and communicating information since the earliest writing systems were developed,[5] the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)."[6] Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.[6]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of computing hardware
Antikythera mechanism, considered the first mechanical analog computer, dating back to the first century BC.

Based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present).[5]

Ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had discussed and began thinking of computer circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of information technology and computer science became more complex and was able to handle the processing of more data. Scholarly articles began to be published from different organizations.[7]

During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered some of the major pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their developments, most of their efforts were focused on designing the first digital computer. Along with that, topics such as artificial intelligence began to be brought up as Turing was beginning to question such technology of the time period.[8]

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick.[9] The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism.[10] Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.[11]

Zuse Z3 replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich. The Zuse Z3 is the first programmable computer.

Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. During the Second World War, Colossus developed the first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring.[12] The first recognizably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[13]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version.[14]

Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955,[15] the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957,[16] the MOSFET demonstration by a Bell Labs team,[17][18][19][20] the planar process by Jean Hoerni in 1959,[21][22][23] and the microprocessor invented by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These important inventions led to the development of the personal computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the emergence of information and communications technology (ICT).[24]

By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term information technology had been redefined as "the convergence of telecommunications and computing technology (...generally known in Britain as information technology)." We then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within documents for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[25]

Innovations in technology have already revolutionized the world by the twenty-first century as people have gained access to different online services. This has changed the workforce drastically as thirty percent of U.S. workers were already in careers in this profession. 136.9 million people were personally connected to the Internet, which was equivalent to 51 million households.[26] Along with the Internet, new types of technology were also being introduced across the globe, which has improved efficiency and made things easier across the globe.

As technology revolutionized society, millions of processes could be completed in seconds. Innovations in communication were crucial as people increasingly relied on computers to communicate via telephone lines and cable networks. The introduction of the email was considered revolutionary as "companies in one part of the world could communicate by e-mail with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world...".[27]

Not only personally, computers and technology have also revolutionized the marketing industry, resulting in more buyers of their products. In 2002, Americans exceeded $28 billion in goods just over the Internet alone while e-commerce a decade later resulted in $289 billion in sales.[27] And as computers are rapidly becoming more sophisticated by the day, they are becoming more used as people are becoming more reliant on them during the twenty-first century.

 

Data processing

[edit]
Main article: Electronic data processing
Ferranti Mark I computer logic board

Electronic data processing or business information processing can refer to the use of automated methods to process commercial data. Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities to process large volumes of similar information. For example: stock updates applied to an inventory, banking transactions applied to account and customer master files, booking and ticketing transactions to an airline's reservation system, billing for utility services. The modifier "electronic" or "automatic" was used with "data processing" (DP), especially c. 1960, to distinguish human clerical data processing from that done by computer.[28][29]

Storage

[edit]
Punched tapes were used in early computers to store and represent data.
Main article: Data storage

Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete.[30] Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of delay-line memory was developed to remove the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line.[31] The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, which was based on a standard cathode ray tube.[32] However, the information stored in it and delay-line memory was volatile in the fact that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932[33] and used in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.[34]

IBM card storage warehouse located in Alexandria, Virginia in 1959. This is where the United States government kept storage of punched cards.

IBM introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system.[35]: 6  Most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs.[36]: 4–5  Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007, almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally:[37] 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007,[38] doubling roughly every 3 years.[39]

Databases

[edit]
Main article: Database

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM's Information Management System (IMS),[40] which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later.[41] IMS stores data hierarchically,[40] but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the first commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle.[42]

All DMS consist of components; they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity.[43] All databases are common in one point that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema.[40]

In the late 2000s (decade), the extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort."[44] As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine- and human-readable.[45]

 

Transmission

[edit]
Radio towers at Pine Hill lookout

Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception.[46] It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.[38]

XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s,[47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP,[45] describing "data-in-transit rather than... data-at-rest".[47]

Manipulation

[edit]

Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months during the same two decades; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast information has doubled every 12.3 years.[38]

Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited".[48] To address that issue, the field of data mining — "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data"[49] — emerged in the late 1980s.[50]

 

Services

[edit]

Email

[edit]
A woman sending an email at an internet cafe's public computer.

The technology and services IT provides for sending and receiving electronic messages (called "letters" or "electronic letters") over a distributed (including global) computer network. In terms of the composition of elements and the principle of operation, electronic mail practically repeats the system of regular (paper) mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, delivery, and others) and characteristic features — ease of use, message transmission delays, sufficient reliability and at the same time no guarantee of delivery. The advantages of e-mail are: easily perceived and remembered by a person addresses of the form user_name@domain_name (for example, somebody@example.com); the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted, as well as arbitrary files; independence of servers (in the general case, they address each other directly); sufficiently high reliability of message delivery; ease of use by humans and programs.

The disadvantages of e-mail include: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive advertising and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of guaranteed delivery of a particular letter; possible delays in message delivery (up to several days); limits on the size of one message and on the total size of messages in the mailbox (personal for users).

Search system

[edit]

A search system is software and hardware complex with a web interface that provides the ability to look for information on the Internet. A search engine usually means a site that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) — a set of programs that provides the functionality of a search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine developer company. Most search engines look for information on World Wide Web sites, but there are also systems that can look for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is one of the priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work of search engines).

Commercial effects

[edit]

Companies in the information technology field are often discussed as a group as the "tech sector" or the "tech industry."[51][52][53] These titles can be misleading at times and should not be mistaken for "tech companies," which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that sell consumer technology and software. From a business perspective, information technology departments are a "cost center" the majority of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which incurs expenses, or "costs," within a company rather than generating profits or revenue streams. Modern businesses rely heavily on technology for their day-to-day operations, so the expenses delegated to cover technology that facilitates business in a more efficient manner are usually seen as "just the cost of doing business." IT departments are allocated funds by senior leadership and must attempt to achieve the desired deliverables while staying within that budget. Government and the private sector might have different funding mechanisms, but the principles are more or less the same. This is an often overlooked reason for the rapid interest in automation and artificial intelligence, but the constant pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some minor operations in large companies.

Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their businesses. Companies have also sought to integrate IT with business outcomes and decision-making through a BizOps or business operations department.[54]

In a business context, the Information Technology Association of America has defined information technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support, or management of computer-based information systems".[55][page needed] The responsibilities of those working in the field include network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an organization's technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded, and replaced.

Information services

[edit]

Information services is a term somewhat loosely applied to a variety of IT-related services offered by commercial companies,[56][57][58] as well as data brokers.

  • U.S. Employment distribution of computer systems design and related services, 2011[59]
    U.S. Employment distribution of computer systems design and related services, 2011[59]
  • U.S. Employment in the computer systems and design related services industry, in thousands, 1990–2011[59]
    U.S. Employment in the computer systems and design related services industry, in thousands, 1990–2011[59]
  • U.S. Occupational growth and wages in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020[59]
    U.S. Occupational growth and wages in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020[59]
  • U.S. projected percent change in employment in selected occupations in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020[59]
    U.S. projected percent change in employment in selected occupations in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020[59]
  • U.S. projected average annual percent change in output and employment in selected industries, 2010–2020[59]
    U.S. projected average annual percent change in output and employment in selected industries, 2010–2020[59]

Ethics

[edit]
Main article: Information ethics

The field of information ethics was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s.[60]: 9  Some of the ethical issues associated with the use of information technology include:[61]: 20–21 

  • Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the permission of the copyright holders
  • Employers monitoring their employees' emails and other Internet usage
  • Unsolicited emails
  • Hackers accessing online databases
  • Web sites installing cookies or spyware to monitor a user's online activities, which may be used by data brokers

IT projects

[edit]

Research suggests that IT projects in business and public administration can easily become significant in scale. Research conducted by McKinsey in collaboration with the University of Oxford suggested that half of all large-scale IT projects (those with initial cost estimates of $15 million or more) often failed to maintain costs within their initial budgets or to complete on time.[62]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be of great use, but without the reinforcement of definition ... the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."[2]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), "Information technology", A Dictionary of Media and Communication (first ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199568758, retrieved 1 August 2012, Commonly a synonym for computers and computer networks but more broadly designating any technology that is used to generate, store, process, and/or distribute information electronically, including television and telephone..
  2. ^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000), p. 869.
  3. ^ Forbes Technology Council, 16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
  4. ^ Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023). "The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems". International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Science. 3 (2): 151–161. doi:10.35870/ijsecs.v3i2.1512. ISSN 2776-3242.
  5. ^ a b Butler, Jeremy G., A History of Information Technology and Systems, University of Arizona, archived from the original on 5 August 2012, retrieved 2 August 2012
  6. ^ a b Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958), "Management in the 1980s", Harvard Business Review, 11.
  7. ^ Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199766666.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-976666-6.
  8. ^ Henderson, H. (2017). computer science. In H. Henderson, Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer science and technology. (3rd ed.). [Online]. New York: Facts On File.
  9. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981), "Decipherment of the earliest tablets", Science, 211 (4479): 283–285, Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S, doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 17748027.
  10. ^ Wright (2012), p. 279.
  11. ^ Chaudhuri (2004), p. 3.
  12. ^ Lavington (1980), p. 11.
  13. ^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), "Computing's Golden Jubilee", Resurrection (20), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 9 January 2012, retrieved 19 April 2008.
  14. ^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), "Some early transistor applications in the UK", Engineering Science & Education Journal, 7 (3): 100–106, doi:10.1049/esej:19980301 (inactive 12 July 2025), ISSN 0963-7346citation: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link).
  15. ^ US2802760A, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., "Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion", issued 13 August 1957 
  16. ^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.
  17. ^ KAHNG, D. (1961). "Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device". Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583–596. doi:10.1142/9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5. cite journal: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  18. ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-540-34258-8.
  19. ^ Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960). "The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131–136. Bibcode:1960JPCS...14..131L. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5.
  20. ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
  21. ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 120 & 321–323. ISBN 9783540342588.
  22. ^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780801886393.
  23. ^ US 3025589  Hoerni, J. A.: "Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices" filed May 1, 1959
  24. ^ "Advanced information on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000" (PDF). Nobel Prize. June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  25. ^ Information technology. (2003). In E.D. Reilly, A. Ralston & D. Hemmendinger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of computer science. (4th ed.).
  26. ^ Stewart, C.M. (2018). Computers. In S. Bronner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of American studies. [Online]. Johns Hopkins University Press.
  27. ^ a b Northrup, C.C. (2013). Computers. In C. Clark Northrup (Ed.), Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to the present. [Online]. London: Routledge.
  28. ^ Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780192800466.
  29. ^ Anthony Ralston. Encyclopedia of Computer Science 4ed. Nature group. p. 502.
  30. ^ Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010), p. 178.
  31. ^ Lavington (1998), p. 1.
  32. ^ "Early computers at Manchester University", Resurrection, 1 (4), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 28 August 2017, retrieved 19 April 2008.
  33. ^ Universität Klagenfurt (ed.), "Magnetic drum", Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics, archived from the original on 21 June 2006, retrieved 21 August 2011.
  34. ^ The Manchester Mark 1, University of Manchester, archived from the original on 21 November 2008, retrieved 24 January 2009.
  35. ^ Khurshudov, Andrei (2001), The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-130-92739-2.
  36. ^ Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999), Magnetic Information Storage Technology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-734570-3.
  37. ^ Wu, Suzanne, "How Much Information Is There in the World?", USC News, University of Southern California, retrieved 10 September 2013.
  38. ^ a b c Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (1 April 2011), "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Science, 332 (6025): 60–65, Bibcode:2011Sci...332...60H, doi:10.1126/science.1200970, PMID 21310967, S2CID 206531385.
  39. ^ "Americas events – Video animation on The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010". The Economist. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012.
  40. ^ a b c Ward & Dafoulas (2006), p. 2.
  41. ^ Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009), A Platform for Enterprise Data Services (PDF), IDC, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2013, retrieved 7 August 2012.
  42. ^ Ward & Dafoulas (2006), p. 3.
  43. ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (2010). Database System Concepts. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-741800-7..
  44. ^ Pardede (2009), p. 2.
  45. ^ a b Pardede (2009), p. 4.
  46. ^ Weik (2000), p. 361.
  47. ^ a b Pardede (2009), p. xiii.
  48. ^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011), p. 5.
  49. ^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011), p. 8.
  50. ^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011), p. xxiii.
  51. ^ "Technology Sector Snapshot". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  52. ^ "Our programmes, campaigns and partnerships". TechUK. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  53. ^ "Cyberstates 2016". CompTIA. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  54. ^ "Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT". TechNewsWorld. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
  55. ^ Proctor, K. Scott (2011), Optimizing and Assessing Information Technology: Improving Business Project Execution, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-10263-3.
  56. ^ "Top Information Services companies". VentureRadar. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  57. ^ "Follow Information Services on Index.co". Index.co. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  58. ^ Publishing, Value Line. "Industry Overview: Information Services". Value Line. Archived from the original on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  59. ^ a b c d e Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013). "U.S. Careers in the growing field of information technology services". U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
  60. ^ Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008), "Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics", in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.), Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85549-5.
  61. ^ Reynolds, George (2009), Ethics in Information Technology, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-538-74622-9.
  62. ^ Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. and Laartz, J., Delivering large-scale IT projects on time, on budget, and on value, published 1 October 2012, accessed 23 June 2023

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-3345-1
  • Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-1254-8
  • Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1
  • Lavington, Simon (1980), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-0810-8
  • Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2nd ed.), The British Computer Society, ISBN 978-1-902505-01-5
  • Pardede, Eric (2009), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-60566-308-1
  • Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7
  • van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-19344-6
  • Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA, ISBN 978-1-84480-452-8
  • Weik, Martin (2000), Computer Science and Communications Dictionary, vol. 2, Springer, ISBN 978-0-7923-8425-0
  • Wright, Michael T. (2012), "The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism", in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.), Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279–292, ISBN 978-94-007-4131-7

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
 
 
 

 

European Strategic Programme on Research in Information Technology (ESPRIT) was a series of integrated programmes of information technology research and development projects and industrial technology transfer measures. It was a European Union initiative managed by the Directorate General for Industry (DG III) of the European Commission.

Programmes

[edit]

Five ESPRIT programmes (ESPRIT 0 to ESPRIT 4) ran consecutively from 1983 to 1998. ESPRIT 4 was succeeded by the Information Society Technologies (IST) programme in 1999.

Projects

[edit]

Some of the projects and products supported by ESPRIT were:

  • BBC Domesday Project, a partnership between Acorn Computers Ltd, Philips, Logica and the BBC with some funding from the European Commission's ESPRIT programme, to mark the 900th anniversary of the original Domesday Book, an 11th-century census of England. It is frequently cited as an example of digital obsolescence on account of the physical medium used for data storage.
  • CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library (CGAL) is a software library that aims to provide easy access to efficient and reliable algorithms in computational geometry. While primarily written in C++, Python bindings are also available. The original funding for the project came from the ESPRIT project.
  • Eurocoop & Eurocode: ESPRIT III projects to develop systems for supporting distributed collaborative working.
  • Open Document Architecture, a free and open international standard document file format maintained by the ITU-T to replace all proprietary document file formats. In 1985 ESPRIT financed a pilot implementation of the ODA concept, involving, among others, Bull corporation, Olivetti, ICL and Siemens AG.
  • Paradise: A sub-project of the ESPRIT I project, COSINE[1] which established a pan-European computer-based network infrastructure that enabled research workers to communicate with each other using OSI. Paradise implemented a distributed X.500 directory across the academic community.
  • Password: Part of the ESPRIT III VALUE project,[2] developed secure applications based on the X.509 standard for use in the academic community.
  • ProCoS I Project (1989–1991), ProCoS II Project (1992–1995), and ProCoS-WG Working Group (1994–1997) on Provably Correct Systems, under ESPRIT II.[3]
  • REDO Project (1989–1992) on software maintenance, under ESPRIT II.[4]
  • RAISE, Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering, was developed as part of the European ESPRIT II LaCoS project in the 1990s, led by Dines Bjørner.
  • REMORA methodology is an event-driven approach for designing information systems, developed by Colette Rolland. This methodology integrates behavioral and temporal aspects with concepts for modelling the structural aspects of an information system. In the ESPRIT I project TODOS, which has led to the development of an integrated environment for the design of office information systems (OISs),
  • SAMPA: The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA) is a computer-readable phonetic script originally developed in the late 1980s.
  • SCOPES: The Systematic Concurrent design of Products, Equipments and Control Systems project was a 3-year project launched in July, 1992, with the aim of specifying integrated computer-aided (CAD) tools for design and control of flexible assembly lines.
  • SIP (Advanced Algorithms and Architectures for Speech and Image Processing), a partnership between Thomson-CSF, AEG, CSELT and ENSPS (ESPRIT P26), to develop the algorithmic and architectural techniques required for recognizing and understanding spoken or visual signals and to demonstrate these techniques in suitable applications.[5]
  • StatLog: "ESPRIT project 5170. Comparative testing and evaluation of statistical and logical learning algorithms on large-scale applications to classification, prediction and control"[6]
  • SUNDIAL (Speech UNderstanding DIALgue)[7] started in September 1988 with Logica Ltd. as prime contractor, together with Erlangen University, CSELT, Daimler-Benz, Capgemini, Politecnico di Torino. Followed the Esprit P.26 to implement and evaluate dialogue systems to be used in telephone industry.[8] The final results were 4 prototypes in 4 languages, involving speech and understanding technologies, and some criteria for evaluation were also reported.[9]
  • ISO 14649 (1999 onward): A standard for STEP-NC for CNC control developed by ESPRIT and Intelligent Manufacturing System.[10]
  • Transputers: "ESPRIT Project P1085" to develop a high performance multi-processor computer and a package of software applications to demonstrate its performance.[11]
  • Web for Schools, an ESPRIT IV project that introduced the World Wide Web in secondary schools in Europe. Teachers created more than 70 international collaborative educational projects that resulted in an exponential growth of teacher communities and educational activities using the World Wide Web
  • AGENT: A project led by IGN-France aiming at developing an operational automated map generalisation software based on multi-agent system paradigm.

References

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  1. ^ "COSINE". Cordis. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
  2. ^ "EC Value Programme".
  3. ^ Hinchey, M. G.; Bowen, J. P.; Olderog, E.-R., eds. (2017). Provably Correct Systems. NASA Monographs in Systems and Software Engineering. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48628-4. ISBN 978-3-319-48627-7. S2CID 7091220.
  4. ^ van Zuylen, H. J., ed. (1993). The Redo Compendium: Reverse Engineering for Software Maintenance. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-93607-3.
  5. ^ Pirani, Giancarlo, ed. (1990). Advanced algorithms and architectures for speech understanding. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 9783540534020.
  6. ^ "Machine Learning, Neural and Statistical Classification", Editors: D. Michie, D.J. Spiegelhalter, C.C. Taylor February 17, 1994 page 4, footnote 2, retrieved 12/12/2015 "The above book (originally published in 1994 by Ellis Horwood) is now out of print. The copyright now resides with the editors who have decided to make the material freely available on the web." http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~charles/statlog/
  7. ^ "SUNDIAL Project".
  8. ^ Peckham, Jeremy. "Speech Understanding and Dialogue over the telephone: an overview of the ESPRIT SUNDIAL project." HLT. 1991.
  9. ^ Alberto Ciaramella (1993): Prototype performance evaluation report. Sundial workpackage 8000 Final Report., CSELT TECHNICAL REPORTS 22 (1994): 241–241.
  10. ^ Hardwick, Martin; Zhao, Fiona; Proctor, Fred; Venkatesh, Sid; Odendahl, David; Xu, Xun (2011-01-01). "A Roadmap for STEP-NC Enabled Interoperable Manufacturing" (PDF). ASME 2011 International Manufacturing Science and Engineering Conference, Volume 2. ASMEDC. pp. 23–32. doi:10.1115/msec2011-50029. ISBN 978-0-7918-4431-1.
  11. ^ Harp, J. G. (1988). "Esprit project P1085 - reconfigurable transputer project". Proceedings of the third conference on Hypercube concurrent computers and applications Architecture, software, computer systems, and general issues. Vol. 1. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press. pp. 122–127. doi:10.1145/62297.62313. ISBN 0-89791-278-0.
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